The Ancient Acropolis of Pronnoi, located on the hill of Paliokastro (also known as Sourgias Castle) in southeastern Cephalonia, served as the administrative and defensive center for one of the four autonomous city-states of the ancient Cephalonian Tetrapolis. The site is architecturally significant and holds a pivotal role in the theory that southeastern Cephalonia is the true location of Homeric Ithaca.

What is at the Acropolis of Pronnoi?

The acropolis features extensive archaeological remains that testify to its long-standing power and religious importance:

• Megalithic Fortifications: The hill is surrounded by Cyclopean walls constructed with oversized boulders, typical of Mycenaean and early Greek defensive architecture. These walls protected the region’s access to the sea and the fertile interior plains.

• Altar of Zeus Ainesios: At the summit of Paliokastro lie the remains of a holy altar dedicated to Ainis of Zeus (Zeus Ainesios). This deity was associated with the nearby Mount Ainos, the highest peak in the Ionian Islands.

• Archaic Necropolis: Below the acropolis, at the position Perdikovrysi, excavations have revealed an archaic cemetery dating from the 7th to the 4th century BC. Findings include large burial jars (pithoi), jewelry, and evidence of a local kiln used to manufacture these vessels.

• Strategic Overlook: From its elevated position, the acropolis offers a commanding view of the harbor of Reithros (modern Poros) and the maritime strait leading toward the Peloponnese and the island of Asteris (modern Oxia).

How it Relates to Homeric Ithaca and Odysseus

The acropolis and its surrounding district (the modern region of Elios-Pronnoi) are central to the identification of the Mycenaean kingdom of Odysseus:

• The Fourfold Nature of Ithaca: Ancient sources describe Ithaca as having a fourfold nature consisting of Neriton, Neion, Krokyleia, and Aigilips. This matches the historical Tetrapolis of Cephalonia, where Pronnoi represents the southeastern portion associated with the "submarine" or hyponeios Ithaca.

• The "Pronians" and Odysseus: In the prophetic poem Alexandra by Lykophron, it is suggested that Odysseus’s palace was located in the land of the Pronians. The text describes Odysseus finding his wealth devoured by the "Pronians" upon his return.

• Economic and Naval Power: The acropolis controlled the timber trade from Mount Ainos (identified as the Homeric Mount Neriton). Coins from Pronnoi featured the image of Heracles and a fir cone, symbols of the local forests used to build the "fir-masts" and oars described in the Odyssey.

• Proximity to the Royal Tomb: The acropolis is situated near the monumental royal tholos tomb of Tzanata, the largest of its kind in northwestern Greece. Archaeologists suggest this tomb was the burial place of a powerful Mycenaean elite that ruled the Ionian islands from this strategic center.

The Acropolis of Pronnoi stands like a silent sentinel at the gates of the Ionian Sea; its massive stones and strategic views act as a map, guiding modern researchers back to the administrative heart of the kingdom Odysseus once called home.

Selected bibliography concerning the specific area and the Mycenaean presence on the islands of Kefalonia.

• John T. Pierce, “Homer’s Influence on Mycenaean Archaeology and the Understanding of Late Helladic Historical Geography” (John T. Pierce, Professor Emeritus, Departments of Geography and Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, Canada.) https://jaa.thebrpi.org/journals/jaa/Vol_12_2024/1.pdf

• John Albanese: (2020). “Some Preliminary Finds from the Tholos Tomb and Ossuary at Borzi Hill, Tzannata, Kefalonia.” Revista Maracanan 22. Available at: http://seer.unirio.br/revistam/article/view/11211/10988.

• Klavs Randsborg, KEPHALLENIA: Archaeology & History, The Ancient Greek Cities, BLACKWELL MUNKSGAARD Vol. 1 & 2, 2002.

• Lazaros Kolonas: “Tzannata of Poros,” Archaiologikon Deltion, vol. 47 (1992), part B1, Chronika, pp. 154–157.

• Lazaros Kolonas: archaiologia.gr/print-article/?print=35604

• Lazaros Kolonas: “Built Chamber Tomb at Tzannata of Poros, Cephalonia,” Kephalliniaka Chronika, vol. 11, pp. 381–382.

• Lazaros Kolonas: Proceedings of the Conference on Letters, History and Folklore of the Pronnon region, “The Tholos Tomb of Tzannata of Poros,” p. 339.

• Lazaros Kolonas: “The geographic advantage, the relief and the prehistory of an area, decisive factors for the foundation of a Mycenaean installation. The example of Cephalonia,” Proceedings of the XI Panionian International Conference, Argostoli Kefalonia2018, vol. 5, pp. 111–122.

• Lazaros Kolonas: “Ancient Installations of Southeastern Cephalonia,” 7th Panionian Conference, vol. 2, pp. 37–45, Lefkada 2002.

• Antonis Vasilakis: ttp://www.elliniki-gnomi.eu/archives/47791 “‘Odysseus was king of the Cephalonians’” | ELLINIKI GNOMI.

• Antonis Vasilakis: Kefallonia Newspaper, interview with Dr. Antonis Vasilakis by Athanasia Markatou & archaiologia.gr/print-article/?print=35604

• Antonis Vasilakis: “Mycenaean settlement at Tzannata of Poros, Cephalonia,” archaiologia.gr/?p=35604

• Antonis Vasilakis (Honorary Director, Ministry of Culture; Former Ephor of Antiquities of Cephalonia–Ithaca & Zakynthos): “Mycenaean Seminar: Late Helladic Apsidal / Ellipsoid (Ovoid) Megaron at Tzannata of Poros, Cephalonia.”

• Antonis Vasilakis: “Late Helladic Ellipsoidal Megaron at Tzannata of Poros. New evidence for the Late Helladic period in Cephalonia,” Proceedings of the 1A Panionion Conference 2018, vol. 5, pp. 51–74.  https://www.openbook.gr/ia-diethnes-panionio-synedrio/

• Ioannis Moschos, “Mycenaean occupation in Cephalonia. Population nuclei, list of sites and conclusions,” 7th Panionian Conference announcement, Lefkada, 2002.

• Ioannis Moschos, “The Area of Pronnon and the eastern coast of Cephalonia before history, topography of the island, catalogue of sites and conclusions,” Proceedings of the Pronnon Region Conference 2005, pp. 227–324.

• Odysseas Metaxas, “Observations on the early biography of the Odyssey,” 2020, Kymothoe magazine, vol. 30, pp. 55–84.

• Odysseas Metaxas: Diverging trajectories within the west Mycenaean koine: the evidence from Kefalonia. (book chapter) In Archaeology of the Ionian Sea, Oxbow Books (2022) 10.2307/j.ctv22fqc0s.18 (pp. 169-178)

• Odysseas Metaxas: “Archaeolinguistic elements from Cephalonia,” 1A Panionian Conference 2018, vol. IV, pp. 751–769. https://www.openbook.gr/ia-diethnes-panionio-synedrio/

• Ioannis Boskos & Odysseas Metaxas: “The Tholos Tomb of Mavrata 80 years later,” Proceedings of the 1A Panionion Conference 2018, 5th volume, pp. 125–137. https://panionio.files.wordpress.com/2020/07/04-boskos-metaxas-sel.-123-138_m.pdf

• Georgia Stratouli, Odysseas Metaxas, Anastasios Bekiaris, Anagia Sarpaki: “Practical social cohesions in the Neolithic of the Ionian: readings of archaeological material from the Drakaina Cave in Poros, Cephalonia,” 11th International Panionian Conference (Corfu, 30 April – 4 May 2014), published in the Proceedings 2017.

• E. M. Chatziotou–G. Stratouli–E. Kotzambopoulou, “The Cave of Drakaina,” Archaeological Proceedings of Athens (1989), pp. 31–60 & Evangelia-Miranda Chatziotou, Georgia Stratouli, “The Drakaina Cave at Poros Cephalonia: evidence for prehistoric use and cult in historical times,” Proceedings of the 6th Panionian Conference, vol. A, pp. 61–76.

• Stamatina Zapanti, “The participation of the Pronnon of Cephalonia in the Athenian Alliance,” Keph. Chronika, vol. 5, pp. 193–200.

• Olympia Vikatos, “In the footsteps of the Taphians pirates: their wanderings in the Ionian Sea during the Late Bronze Age and the Dark Ages,” Proceedings Proceedings of the XI Panionian International Conference, Argostoli Kefalonia 2018, pp. 75–110.

• Christina Souyoudzoglou-Haywood, Archaeology and the Search for Homeric Ithaca: The Case of Mycenaean Kephalonia Article in Acta Archaeologica · December 2018

• Christina Souyoudzoglou-Haywood,  Reuse and cult at the Mycenaean tombs of Kephalonia in the ancient historical periods. July 2020 In book: Proceedings of the XI Panionian International Conference, Argostoli Kefalonia 2018 (pp.223-242)

• Christina Souyoudzoglou-Haywood, The Ionian Islands in the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (3000-850 BC), 2nd edition. August 2025 Publisher: Liverpool University Press.

• Christina Souyoudzoglou-Haywood,  Islands in the stream:: a maritime perspective of the south-central Ionian islands in the Late Bronze Age, January 2022 DOI:10.2307/j.ctv22fqc0s.15 In book: Archaeology of the Ionian Sea (pp.117-136)

• Christina Souyoudzoglou-Haywood,  Archaeology of the Ionian Sea: Landscapes, seascapes and the circulation of people, goods and ideas from the Palaeolithic to the end of the Bronze Age January 2022 Publisher: OXBOW BOOKS 

• Petros Petratos, “From Heracles to the Dragon. Arakli and the strait of Poros,” Proceedings 1st Conference on the Letters, History and Folklore of the Pronnon region, Cephalonia 2005, pp. 379–395.

• Petros Petratos, “Homeric Nymph Cave: Melissani Cave,” Keph. Chronika vol. 8, 2003, pp. 239–265.

• Petros Petratos, “The Homeric Krokyleia,” Kephalliniaka Chronika, vol. 9, 2003, pp. 155–165.

• Marinatos, Spyridon N. 1962. Kefallinia: A Historical and Archaeological Walk.
  (Πρωτότυπο: Κεφαλληνία. Ιστορικός και αρχαιολογικός περίπατος)

• Marinatos, Spyridon.1923 (for the years 1920–21).“Archaeological Investigations throughout Cephalonia.”(Πρωτότυπο: «Αρχαιολογικαί έρευναι ανά την Κεφαλληνίαν»)

• Marinatos, Spyridon. 1932. “The Goekoop Excavations in Cephalonia.” (Πρωτότυπο: «Αι ανασκαφαί Goekoop εν Κεφαλληνία»)

• Marinatos, Spyridon. 1933. “The Goekoop Excavations in Cephalonia (Part II).”
  (Πρωτότυπο: «Αι ανασκαφαί Goekoop εν Κεφαλληνία» — συνέχεια του προηγούμενου τόμου)

• Marinatos, Spyridon. 1951. “Excavations in Cephalonia.” (Πρωτότυπο: «Ανασκαφαί εν Κεφαλληνία»)

• Marinatos, Spyridon. 1964 (published 1967). “Investigations in Sami of Cephalonia.”
  (Πρωτότυπο: «Έρευναι εν Σάμη της Κεφαλληνίας»)

• Henriette Putman Gramer – Gerasimos Metaxas, Homeric Ithaca: An unidentified Mycenaean center in the islands of the Cephalonians, Cactus Editions, Athens 2000.

• Henriette Metaxas-Putman Cramer, Makis Metaxas, Jan Pierce, John Pierce.
  "IN far SEEN ITHACA Unravelling Homeric Riddles in the Ionian Sea" (forthcoming).

• Athens APE-MPE: “The most important archaeological events in Greece in 2011,” scientists speaking to APE-MPE, 28 Dec. 2011.

• Vaggelis Pantazis, “The size of Homeric Ithaca,” Kephalliniaka Chronika, vol. 8, Argostoli 1999, p. 271.