Homer's Zakynthos
The location of the Homeric islands in the Central Ionian Sea presents a unique geographical paradox, as the ancient names do not consistently match the islands that bear those names today. Based on recent analysis, Homeric Zakynthos is identified as the present-day island of Lefkada, concluding the geographical sequence of Odysseus’s kingdom when listed from south to north.
What is the Island Today?
The island identified as the Homeric Zakynthos is the present-day island of Lefkada (Lefkas).
In the system used to decode the ancient texts, Lefkada is designated as Island No. 3.
What is the Proposed Island?
The proposed island is Lefkada. This identification relies on the understanding that the four main islands of Odysseus’s kingdom—Dulichium, Sami, Ithaca, and Zakynthos—experienced a systematic name swap or "cartographic reorganisation" after the Mycenaean era.
In the stereotyped Homeric sequence, the islands are listed from south to north: Dulichium, Sami, and wooded Zakynthos (Dulichium -> Sami -> Zakynthos). Therefore, the Homeric Zakynthos is the last island mentioned in this list, situated furthest to the north.
What is Written in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey About the Island?
Homer primarily characterizes the island with one specific, distinguishing adjective:
Wooded (Hylēessa): Zakynthos is repeatedly referred to as "Hylēessa Zakynthos", meaning wooded or forested. This distinguishes it from the grain-bearing (fertile) nature of Dulichium and the rocky (mountainous) nature of Sami.
Location in Sequence: Homer lists it as the last island in the fixed verse: "Dulichion and Sami and wooded Zakynthos". This fixed order is believed to represent a physical sequence from south to north.
Presence: Although not many details are recorded about the island entity of Zakynthos in the epic, the presence of Zakynthians (za-ku-si-jo) is confirmed on a Linear B tablet discovered in the palace of Pylos.
How Do the Writings Match the Topography of the Island?
The geographical and geomorphological features of present-day Lefkada are described as aligning precisely with the Homeric description of hylēessa Zakynthos.
The Wooded Landscape
The Homeric epithet hylēessa (wooded/forested) absolutely corresponds to the geomorphology of the present-day island of Lefkada, which is characterized by densely wooded mountains. This contrasts sharply with the island traditionally called Zakynthos (modern Zakynthos), which is noted as the most low-lying and flat island in the Ionian Sea, suitable for grains (making it instead a strong candidate for Dulichium).
Etymology and Mythological Links
Kynthos Connection: The name Zakynthos is composed of the intensive prefix Za- and the lemma Kynthos. Kynthos is associated with the names of mountains and the cult of the god Apollo. Lefkada, specifically Cape Lefkata, lies at the center of the cultic circle of Apollo, reinforced by the ancient tradition of a sanctuary dedicated to the god there.
The White Rock: Homer mentions the Lefkada petra (White Rock) as the final point of land before souls passed over the Ocean to the asphodel meadow of Hades. The sheer cliff face at Cape Lefkata and the subsequent construction of an Apollo sanctuary there support the ancient connection between this location and the mythological passage mentioned in the epic.
Leukos Legend: A tradition indicates that the Lefkada petra was named after Odysseus’s companion, Leukos, who was slain at Troy and was said to be of Zakynthian descent. This relationship suggests that when the island (Lefkada) changed its name, the hero (Leukos the Zakynthian) was relocated to Lefkada, offering indirect but reliable evidence for the older name of Lefkada.
A Theory as to Why Its Name Changed
The difference between the Homeric island names and the modern names in the Central Ionian Islands is attributed to a massive toponymic shift or "systematic cartographic reorganisation" that took place during the Dark Ages (after the collapse of the Mycenaean world) and solidified during the historical period.
The theory posits that the four Homeric toponyms were preserved, but their geographical positions became inversely proportional to their original Mycenaean placements.
Name Migration: During the Mycenaean period, the perception of geography placed the South as 'above' (beginning) and the North as 'below' (end).
Inversion: When the worldview shifted in historical times (North = above), the names were assigned in a way that reversed their original sequence.
Homeric Zakynthos: Through this inversion, the Homeric Zakynthos, which was the northernmost island (Island No. 3), retains its name but relocates to the position of present-day Lefkada in the north.
New Historical Names: Concurrently, new names appeared in the historical record, such as Lefkas (Lefkada), which eventually supplanted the Homeric name in that location. This renaming process was characteristic of the turmoil that followed the Mycenaean collapse, where new political entities (like Cephalonia and Lefkada) emerged, often fueled by colonizing forces.
For more information visit The Talking Stones post on The Homer's Ithaca blog.
Selected bibliography concerning the specific area and the Mycenaean presence on the islands of Kefalonia.
John T. Pierce, “Homer’s Influence on Mycenaean Archaeology and the Understanding of Late Helladic Historical Geography” (John T. Pierce, Professor Emeritus, Departments of Geography and Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, Canada.) https://jaa.thebrpi.org/journals/jaa/Vol_12_2024/1.pdf
John Albanese: (2020). “Some Preliminary Finds from the Tholos Tomb and Ossuary at Borzi Hill, Tzannata, Kefalonia.” Revista Maracanan 22. Available at: http://seer.unirio.br/revistam/article/view/11211/10988.
Klavs Randsborg, KEPHALLENIA: Archaeology & History, The Ancient Greek Cities, BLACKWELL MUNKSGAARD Vol. 1 & 2, 2002.
Lazaros Kolonas: “Tzannata of Poros,” Archaiologikon Deltion, vol. 47 (1992), part B1, Chronika, pp. 154–157.
Lazaros Kolonas: archaiologia.gr/print-article/?print=35604
Lazaros Kolonas: “Built Chamber Tomb at Tzannata of Poros, Cephalonia,” Kephalliniaka Chronika, vol. 11, pp. 381–382.
Lazaros Kolonas: Proceedings of the Conference on Letters, History and Folklore of the Pronnon region, “The Tholos Tomb of Tzannata of Poros,” p. 339.
Lazaros Kolonas: “The geographic advantage, the relief and the prehistory of an area, decisive factors for the foundation of a Mycenaean installation. The example of Cephalonia,” Proceedings of the XI Panionian International Conference, Argostoli Kefalonia2018, vol. 5, pp. 111–122.
Lazaros Kolonas: “Ancient Installations of Southeastern Cephalonia,” 7th Panionian Conference, vol. 2, pp. 37–45, Lefkada 2002.
Antonis Vasilakis: ttp://www.elliniki-gnomi.eu/archives/47791 “‘Odysseus was king of the Cephalonians’” | ELLINIKI GNOMI.
Antonis Vasilakis: Kefallonia Newspaper, interview with Dr. Antonis Vasilakis by Athanasia Markatou & archaiologia.gr/print-article/?print=35604
Antonis Vasilakis: “Mycenaean settlement at Tzannata of Poros, Cephalonia,” archaiologia.gr/?p=35604
Antonis Vasilakis (Honorary Director, Ministry of Culture; Former Ephor of Antiquities of Cephalonia–Ithaca & Zakynthos): “Mycenaean Seminar: Late Helladic Apsidal / Ellipsoid (Ovoid) Megaron at Tzannata of Poros, Cephalonia.”
Antonis Vasilakis: “Late Helladic Ellipsoidal Megaron at Tzannata of Poros. New evidence for the Late Helladic period in Cephalonia,” Proceedings of the 1A Panionion Conference 2018, vol. 5, pp. 51–74. https://www.openbook.gr/ia-diethnes-panionio-synedrio/
Ioannis Moschos, “Mycenaean occupation in Cephalonia. Population nuclei, list of sites and conclusions,” 7th Panionian Conference announcement, Lefkada, 2002.
Ioannis Moschos, “The Area of Pronnon and the eastern coast of Cephalonia before history, topography of the island, catalogue of sites and conclusions,” Proceedings of the Pronnon Region Conference 2005, pp. 227–324.
Odysseas Metaxas, “Observations on the early biography of the Odyssey,” 2020, Kymothoe magazine, vol. 30, pp. 55–84.
Odysseas Metaxas: Diverging trajectories within the west Mycenaean koine: the evidence from Kefalonia. (book chapter) In Archaeology of the Ionian Sea, Oxbow Books (2022) 10.2307/j.ctv22fqc0s.18 (pp. 169-178)
Odysseas Metaxas: “Archaeolinguistic elements from Cephalonia,” 1A Panionian Conference 2018, vol. IV, pp. 751–769. https://www.openbook.gr/ia-diethnes-panionio-synedrio/
Ioannis Boskos & Odysseas Metaxas: “The Tholos Tomb of Mavrata 80 years later,” Proceedings of the 1A Panionion Conference 2018, 5th volume, pp. 125–137. https://panionio.files.wordpress.com/2020/07/04-boskos-metaxas-sel.-123-138_m.pdf
Georgia Stratouli, Odysseas Metaxas, Anastasios Bekiaris, Anagia Sarpaki: “Practical social cohesions in the Neolithic of the Ionian: readings of archaeological material from the Drakaina Cave in Poros, Cephalonia,” 11th International Panionian Conference (Corfu, 30 April – 4 May 2014), published in the Proceedings 2017.
E. M. Chatziotou–G. Stratouli–E. Kotzambopoulou, “The Cave of Drakaina,” Archaeological Proceedings of Athens (1989), pp. 31–60 & Evangelia-Miranda Chatziotou, Georgia Stratouli, “The Drakaina Cave at Poros Cephalonia: evidence for prehistoric use and cult in historical times,” Proceedings of the 6th Panionian Conference, vol. A, pp. 61–76.
Stamatina Zapanti, “The participation of the Pronnon of Cephalonia in the Athenian Alliance,” Keph. Chronika, vol. 5, pp. 193–200.
Olympia Vikatos, “In the footsteps of the Taphians pirates: their wanderings in the Ionian Sea during the Late Bronze Age and the Dark Ages,” Proceedings Proceedings of the XI Panionian International Conference, Argostoli Kefalonia 2018, pp. 75–110.
Christina Souyoudzoglou-Haywood, Archaeology and the Search for Homeric Ithaca: The Case of Mycenaean Kephalonia Article in Acta Archaeologica · December 2018
Christina Souyoudzoglou-Haywood, Reuse and cult at the Mycenaean tombs of Kephalonia in the ancient historical periods. July 2020 In book: Proceedings of the XI Panionian International Conference, Argostoli Kefalonia 2018 (pp.223-242)
Christina Souyoudzoglou-Haywood, The Ionian Islands in the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (3000-850 BC), 2nd edition. August 2025 Publisher: Liverpool University Press.
Christina Souyoudzoglou-Haywood, Islands in the stream:: a maritime perspective of the south-central Ionian islands in the Late Bronze Age, January 2022 DOI:10.2307/j.ctv22fqc0s.15 In book: Archaeology of the Ionian Sea (pp.117-136)
Christina Souyoudzoglou-Haywood, Archaeology of the Ionian Sea: Landscapes, seascapes and the circulation of people, goods and ideas from the Palaeolithic to the end of the Bronze Age January 2022 Publisher: OXBOW BOOKS
Petros Petratos, “From Heracles to the Dragon. Arakli and the strait of Poros,” Proceedings 1st Conference on the Letters, History and Folklore of the Pronnon region, Cephalonia 2005, pp. 379–395.
Petros Petratos, “Homeric Nymph Cave: Melissani Cave,” Keph. Chronika vol. 8, 2003, pp. 239–265.
Petros Petratos, “The Homeric Krokyleia,” Kephalliniaka Chronika, vol. 9, 2003, pp. 155–165.
Marinatos, Spyridon N. 1962. Kefallinia: A Historical and Archaeological Walk.
(Πρωτότυπο: Κεφαλληνία. Ιστορικός και αρχαιολογικός περίπατος)Marinatos, Spyridon.1923 (for the years 1920–21).“Archaeological Investigations throughout Cephalonia.”(Πρωτότυπο: «Αρχαιολογικαί έρευναι ανά την Κεφαλληνίαν»)
Marinatos, Spyridon. 1932. “The Goekoop Excavations in Cephalonia.” (Πρωτότυπο: «Αι ανασκαφαί Goekoop εν Κεφαλληνία»)
Marinatos, Spyridon. 1933. “The Goekoop Excavations in Cephalonia (Part II).”
(Πρωτότυπο: «Αι ανασκαφαί Goekoop εν Κεφαλληνία» — συνέχεια του προηγούμενου τόμου)Marinatos, Spyridon. 1951. “Excavations in Cephalonia.” (Πρωτότυπο: «Ανασκαφαί εν Κεφαλληνία»)
Marinatos, Spyridon. 1964 (published 1967). “Investigations in Sami of Cephalonia.”
(Πρωτότυπο: «Έρευναι εν Σάμη της Κεφαλληνίας»)Henriette Putman Gramer – Gerasimos Metaxas, Homeric Ithaca: An unidentified Mycenaean center in the islands of the Cephalonians, Cactus Editions, Athens 2000.
Henriette Metaxas-Putman Cramer, Makis Metaxas, Jan Pierce, John Pierce.
"IN far SEEN ITHACA Unravelling Homeric Riddles in the Ionian Sea" (forthcoming).Athens APE-MPE: “The most important archaeological events in Greece in 2011,” scientists speaking to APE-MPE, 28 Dec. 2011.
Vaggelis Pantazis, “The size of Homeric Ithaca,” Kephalliniaka Chronika, vol. 8, Argostoli 1999, p. 271.
